Jehovah's Witnesses

Jehovah's Witnesses

International headquarters of Jehovah's Witnesses in Brooklyn, New York
Classification	Millenarian
Orientation	Restorationist
Organizational structure	Hierarchical
Geographical areas	Worldwide
Founder	Charles Taze Russell (Bible Student movement) Joseph Franklin Rutherford (Jehovah's Witnesses)
Origin	1876: Bible Students founded 1931: Named Jehovah's witnesses Pennsylvania and New York, USA
Branched from	Bible Student movement
Separations	See Jehovah's Witnesses splinter groups
Congregations	105,298
Members	7.3 million
Official Website	http://www.watchtower.org
Statistics from 2010 Yearbook of Jehovah's Witnesses

Jehovah's Witnesses is a millenarian^[1] restorationist^[2] Christian^[3] denomination^[4] with nontrinitarian beliefs distinct from mainstream Christianity. The religion reports worldwide membership of over 7 million adherents involved in evangelism,^[5] convention attendance of over 12 million, and annual Memorial attendance of over 18 million.^[6][7] They are directed by the Governing Body of Jehovah's Witnesses, a group of elders that exercises authority on all doctrinal matters. Witnesses base their beliefs on the Bible, and prefer their own translation, the New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures.^[8] Their central belief is the imminent establishment of God's kingdom on earth, which they consider to be the only solution for all the problems faced by humankind.^[9]

The group emerged from the Bible Student movement, founded in the late 19th century by Charles Taze Russell, with the formation of Zion's Watch Tower Tract Society. A schism developed in the movement after Russell's death, and the branch that maintained control of the society underwent significant organizational changes. Joseph Franklin Rutherford became president of the society, gradually bringing its authority structure and methods of evangelism under centralized direction, and placing new emphasis on public preaching. The name Jehovah's witnesses, based on Isaiah 43:10–12, was adopted in 1931.

Since its inception, the Watch Tower Society has taught that the present world order is in its last days^[10] and will soon be destroyed at Armageddon; in the years leading up to 1914, 1925 and 1975, its publications raised expectations of Armageddon or the establishment of Christ's kingdom over the earth occurring in those years. According to the society, only Jehovah's Witnesses "have any Scriptural hope of surviving the impending end",^[11] but that God will ultimately decide who will survive; those whom God chooses to save—survivors and resurrected individuals—will have the opportunity to live forever in an earthly paradise, ruled by Christ and 144,000 humans raised to heaven.

Jehovah's Witnesses are best known for their door-to-door preaching, distribution of literature such as The Watchtower and Awake!, and for their refusal of military service and blood transfusions. They consider use of the name Jehovah vital for proper worship. They reject Trinitarianism, immortality of the soul, and hellfire, which they consider to be unscriptural doctrines. They do not observe celebrations such as Christmas, Easter or birthdays, which they believe have pagan origins that are not compatible with Christianity. Members commonly refer to their body of beliefs as "the Truth", and adherents consider themselves to be "in the truth."^[12] Jehovah's Witnesses consider secular society to be morally corrupt and under the influence of Satan, and limit their social interaction with non-Witnesses.

Baptized members who violate the organization's fundamental moral principles or who dispute doctrinal matters may be subject to disciplinary action. Members who are considered unrepentant after counseling are subject to a form of shunning called disfellowshipping. Members who formally announce their resignation from the religion are also shunned. Disfellowshipped members may eventually be reinstated to the congregation if deemed repentant.

The religion's position regarding conscientious objection to military service and refusal to salute national flags has brought it into conflict with governments, particularly those that conscript citizens for military service. Consequently, activities of Jehovah's Witnesses have been banned or restricted in some countries. Persistent legal challenges by Jehovah's Witnesses, have had considerable influence on legislation related to civil rights in various countries.

Contents 1 History 1.1 Background (1870–1916) 1.2 Reorganization (1917–1942) 1.3 Continued development (1942–present) 2 Organization 3 Beliefs 3.1 Sources of doctrine 3.2 Jehovah and Jesus Christ 3.3 Satan 3.4 Life after death 3.5 God's Messianic Kingdom 3.6 Eschatology 4 Practices 4.1 Worship 4.2 Evangelism 4.3 Ethics and morality 4.4 Disciplinary action 4.5 Separateness 4.6 Rejection of blood transfusions 5 Demographics 6 Opposition 6.1 Persecution 6.2 Legal challenges 7 Criticism 7.1 New World Translation 7.2 Failed predictions 7.3 Social issues 7.4 Handling of sexual abuse cases 8 References 9 Further reading 10 External links 10.1 Official sites 10.2 Other sites

History

Part of a series on
Jehovah's Witnesses
Overview
Organizational structure
Governing Body Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society Corporations
History
Bible Student movement Splinter groups Doctrinal development
Demographics
By country
Beliefs · Practices
Salvation · Eschatology · 144,000 Faithful and discreet slave · Hymns God's name · Blood · Discipline
Literature
The Watchtower · Awake! New World Translation List of publications
Teaching programs
Kingdom Hall · Gilead School
People
Watch Tower presidents
W.H. Conley · C.T. Russell J.F. Rutherford · N.H. Knorr F.W. Franz · M.G. Henschel D.A. Adams
Formative influences
William Miller · Henry Grew George Storrs · N.H. Barbour
Notable former members
Raymond Franz · Olin Moyle
Opposition
Criticism · Persecution Supreme Court cases

Background (1870–1916)

In 1870, Charles Taze Russell and others formed an independent group to study the Bible.^[13][14] In 1877 Russell jointly edited a religious journal, Herald of the Morning, with Nelson H. Barbour. The pair co-wrote Three Worlds, in which they taught that Christ had returned in 1874^[15] and that 1914 would mark the end of a 2520-year period called "the Gentile Times".^[16] In July 1879, after separating from Barbour, Russell began publishing the magazine Zion's Watch Tower and Herald of Christ's Presence,^[17] highlighting his interpretations of biblical chronology, with particular attention to the belief that the world was in "the last days" and that a new age was imminent.^[18] In 1889, Russell taught that "the 'battle of the great day of God Almighty' ... is already commenced" and would culminate with the overthrow of all political rulership in 1914, at the end of "the Gentile Times".^[19]

From 1879 Watch Tower supporters gathered as autonomous congregations to study the Bible and Russell's writings, including his six-volume series, Studies in the Scriptures. Russell established Zion's Watch Tower Tract Society in 1881, which was incorporated in 1884 as a "business convenience" to distribute tracts and Bibles. In 1903, newspapers began publishing Russell's written sermons, which were syndicated worldwide.^[20] Russell died in October 1916 while on a preaching campaign.^[21]

Reorganization (1917–1942)

In January 1917, the Watch Tower Society's legal representative, Joseph Franklin Rutherford, was elected as its next president, leading to a rupture over the leadership and triggering a major turnover of members over the next decade.^[22][23][24] Rutherford centralized organizational control of the Watch Tower Society. In 1919 the Brooklyn headquarters appointed a director in each congregation, and a year later all members were instructed to report their preaching activity weekly.^[25] He released The Finished Mystery as the seventh volume of Russell's Studies in the Scriptures, which strongly criticized Catholic and Protestant clergy and Christian involvement in war.^[26] As a result, Watch Tower Society directors were jailed for sedition under the Espionage Act in 1918 and members were subjected to mob violence; charges against the directors were dropped in 1920.^[27]

By mid-1919, about one in seven Bible Students had left rather than accept Rutherford's leadership.^[28] At an international convention held at Cedar Point, Ohio, in September 1922, a new emphasis was made on house-to-house preaching.^[29] Significant changes in doctrine were made under Rutherford's leadership, including the 1918 announcement that Jewish patriarchs (such as Abraham and Isaac) would be resurrected in 1925, marking the beginning of Christ's thousand-year reign.^[30][31] As many as seventy-five percent left by 1928, resulting in the formation of various Bible Student groups independent of the Watch Tower Society.^[32]

On July 26, 1931, at a convention in Columbus, Ohio, Rutherford announced the new name Jehovah's witnesses—based on Isaiah 43:10: "Ye are my witnesses, saith Jehovah, and my servant whom I have chosen"—which was adopted by resolution.^[33][34] In 1932, Rutherford eliminated the system of locally elected elders and in 1938 introduced what he called a "theocratic" (literally, God-ruled) organizational system, under which appointments in congregations worldwide were made from the Brooklyn headquarters.^[35] In 1932 they abandoned the teaching that the Jews continued to hold a special role in the divine plan.^[36][37][38] By 1933, the timing of the beginning of Christ's presence (Greek: parousía), his enthronement as king, and the start of the "last days", were each moved to 1914.^{[30][39][40][41]} In 1932, a separate class of members was identified who would live in a paradise restored on earth; from 1935, new converts to the movement were considered part of that class. Previously, membership was generally composed of those who believed they would be resurrected to live in heaven to rule over earth with Christ.^[42]

As their interpretations of scripture developed, Witness publications taught that saluting national flags and singing the national anthem are forms of idolatry,^[43] which led to a new outbreak of mob violence and government opposition in the United States, Canada, Germany and other countries.

Continued development (1942–present)

Following Rutherford's death in January 1942, Nathan Knorr was appointed as third president of the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society. He commissioned a new translation of the Bible, the New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures, the full version of which was released in 1961. He organized large international assemblies, instituted new training programs for members, and expanded missionary activity and branch offices throughout the world.^[44] Knorr's presidency was also marked by an increasing use of explicit instructions guiding Witnesses in their lifestyle and conduct and a greater use of congregational judicial procedures to enforce strict moral codes.^[45][46]

From 1966, Witness publications and convention talks built anticipation of the possibility that Christ's thousand-year reign might begin in late 1975^[47][48][49] or shortly thereafter.^{[50][51][52][53]} The number of baptisms increased significantly, from about 59,000 in 1966 to more than 297,000 in 1974, but membership declined after expectations for the year proved to be wrong.^{[54][55][56][57]} Watch Tower Society literature did not state dogmatically that 1975 would definitely mark the end,^[58] but in 1980 the Watch Tower Society admitted its responsibility in building up hope regarding that year.^[59]

The offices of elder and ministerial servant were restored to Witness congregations in 1972, with appointments made from headquarters^[60] (and later, also by branch committees).^[61] In a major organizational overhaul in 1976, the power of the Watch Tower Society president was diminished, with authority for doctrinal and organizational decisions passed to the Governing Body.^[62] Reflecting these organizational changes, publications of Jehovah's Witnesses began using the capitalized name, Jehovah's Witnesses.^[63] Since Knorr's death in 1977, the position of president has been occupied by Frederick Franz (1977–1992) and Milton Henschel (1992–2000), both members of Governing Body, and since 2000 by Don A. Adams, not a member of the Governing Body.

Organization

Jehovah's Witnesses are organized under a hierarchical arrangement, which their leadership calls a "theocratic government", reflecting their belief that it is God's organization on earth.^[64]

The organization is headed by the Governing Body—an all-male group that varies in size, but since 2010 has comprised eight members,^[65] all of whom profess to be of the "anointed" class with a hope of heavenly life—based in the Watch Tower Society's Brooklyn, New York headquarters.^[66][67] There is no election for membership; new members are selected by the existing body.^[68] The Governing Body is described as the "spokesman" for God's "faithful and discreet slave class" (approximately 10,000 self-professed "anointed" Jehovah's Witnesses).^[69][70] It directs several committees that are responsible for administrative functions, including publishing, assembly programs and evangelizing activities.^[64] It directly appoints all branch committee members and district and circuit overseers,^[71] after they have been recommended by local branches,^[72] with traveling overseers supervising groups of congregations within their jurisdictions.

Each congregation has a body of appointed unpaid male elders and ministerial servants. Elders maintain general responsibility for congregational governance, setting meeting times, selecting speakers and conducting meetings, directing the public preaching work, and creating "judicial committees" to investigate and decide disciplinary action for cases that are seen as breaching their doctrines. New elders are appointed by branch offices after recommendation by the existing body of elders. Ministerial servants—appointed in a similar manner to elders—fulfill clerical and attendant duties, but may also teach and conduct meetings.^[64] Witnesses do not use elder as a title to signify a formal clergy-laity division,^[73] though elders may employ ecclesiastical privilege.^[74]

Individuals undergoing baptism must affirm publicly that dedication and baptism identify them "as one of Jehovah’s Witnesses in association with God’s spirit-directed organization",^[75] though Witness publications say baptism is a personal dedication to God and not "to a man, work or organization".^[76][77] Watch Tower publications emphasize the need for members to be obedient and loyal to Jehovah and to "his organization",^[78][79][80] stating that individuals must remain part of it to receive God's favor and to survive Armageddon.^[81][82][83] Witness publications state that acceptable service to God can be rendered only through that organization^[84] and that members should remain submissive to the religion's leaders and to local congregational elders.^[85][86] There is no tithing or collection, funding for all the activities of Jehovah's Witnesses are done through voluntary contributions from sources inside and outside the organization.^[87][88]

Beliefs

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Sources of doctrine

Doctrines of Jehovah's Witnesses are established by the Governing Body, which assumes responsibility for interpreting and applying scripture.^{[24][89][90][91]} Watch Tower Society publications claim that doctrinal changes and refinements result from a process of progressive revelation, in which God gradually reveals his will and purpose.^{[92][93][94][95][96]} Watch Tower Society literature has suggested such enlightenment results from the application of reason and study,^[97] the guidance of the holy spirit, and direction from Jesus Christ and angels.^[98] However, the Governing Body makes no claim of infallibility or divine inspiration.^{[99][100][101]}

The entire Protestant canon of scripture is considered the inspired, inerrant word of God.^[102] Jehovah's Witnesses consider the Bible to be scientifically and historically accurate and reliable^[103] and interpret much of it literally, but accept parts of it as symbolic.^[104] They consider the Bible to be the final authority for all their beliefs.^[105] Sociologist Andrew Holden's ethnographic study of the religion concluded that pronouncements of the Governing Body, through Watch Tower Society publications, carry almost as much weight as the Bible,^[106][107] although Jehovah's Witnesses publications disclaim inspiration by God,^[108] saying only that some "anointed" Witnesses at the religion's headquarters are helped by the holy spirit to discern "deep truths".^[109] The Watch Tower Society strongly discourages Witnesses from Bible study or research independent of its publications.^{[110][111][112][113]}

Jehovah and Jesus Christ

Jehovah's Witnesses emphasize use of God's biblical name, represented in the original texts by the Tetragrammaton, and in English they prefer to use the name, Jehovah.^[114] They believe that Jehovah is the only true God, the creator of all things, and give him the title "Universal Sovereign". They believe that all worship should be directed toward him.^[115]

Jehovah's Witnesses believe that Jesus was Jehovah's only direct creation,^[116] and that everything else was created by means of Christ, and that the initial unassisted act of creation uniquely identifies Jesus as God's "only-begotten Son".^[117][118] Jesus served as a redeemer and a ransom sacrifice to pay for the sins of humankind.^[119] They believe Jesus died on a single upright torture stake rather than the traditional cross.^[120] They believe that references in the Bible to the Archangel Michael, Apollyon (a.k.a. Abaddon), and the Word all refer to Jesus.^{[121][122][123]}

Satan

Jehovah's Witnesses believe that Satan is a spirit creature who is the ruler of the world,^[124][125] and that he was at one time a perfect angel who developed feelings of self-importance, and craved worship. Satan persuaded Adam and Eve to obey him rather than God, and humanity subsequently became participants in a challenge involving the competing claims of Jehovah and Satan to universal sovereignty.^[115][126] Other angels who sided with Satan became demons.^[127] Jehovah's Witnesses teach that Satan and his demons were cast down to earth from heaven after October 1, 1914,^[128][129] at which point the end times began.^[115][130] Witnesses believe that the world is influenced by Satan and his demons, that they mislead people, and are the cause of human suffering. However, they do not believe that individual rulers or governments are under Satan's direct control.^[131][132]

Life after death

Jehovah's Witnesses believe death is a state of non-existence with no consciousness. There is no Hell of fiery torment; Hades and Sheol are understood to refer to the condition of death, termed the common grave.^[133] Jehovah's Witnesses consider the soul to be a life or a living body that can die.^[134] Their hope for life after death involves being resurrected by God to a cleansed earth after Armageddon, or to heaven for a limited number. Those remaining on earth are referred to as the "other sheep".

Watch Tower Society publications teach that humanity is in a sinful state,^[135] from which release is only possible by means of Jesus' shed blood as a payment, or atonement, for the sins of humankind.^[136] Witnesses believe there are two destinations for those saved by God. They interpret Revelation 14 to mean that the number of Christians going to heaven is limited to precisely 144,000, who will rule with Jesus as kings and priests over earth.^[137] The remainder have the hope of living forever in an earthly paradise.^[138] Jehovah's Witnesses teach that only they meet scriptural requirements for surviving Armageddon, although God is the final judge.^{[11][139][140][141][142][143]} During the millennium, most other people who died since the time of Abel and prior to Armageddon will be resurrected with the prospect of living forever;^[144][145] they will be taught the proper way to worship God in order for them to be ready for their final test before the end of the millennium.

God's Messianic Kingdom

Witness publications teach that God's Kingdom is a literal government in heaven, ruled by Jesus Christ and 144,000 Christians drawn from the earth.^[146] The kingdom is viewed as the means by which God will accomplish his original purpose for the earth,^[147][148] transforming earth into a paradise without sickness or death.^[149] The kingdom is said to have been the focal point of Jesus' ministry on earth^[150] and established in heaven in 1914.^[151] They believe 1914 marks the restoration of God's rule over earth after being halted for 2520 years since 607 BC, the date they uniquely assign to the destruction of Jersualem by the Babylonians.^[152]

Eschatology

A central teaching of Jehovah's Witnesses is that the current world era, or "system of things", entered the "last days" in 1914^[153] and faces imminent destruction through intervention by God and Jesus Christ, leading to deliverance for those who worship God acceptably. They consider all other present-day religions to be false, identifying them with "Babylon the Great", or the "harlot", of Revelation 17,^[154] and believe that they will soon be destroyed by the United Nations. This development will mark the beginning of the great tribulation.^[155] Satan will subsequently attack Jehovah's Witnesses, an action that will prompt God to begin the war of Armageddon, during which all forms of government and all people not counted as Christ's "sheep", or true followers, will be destroyed.^[156] After Armageddon, God will extend his heavenly kingdom to include earth,^[157][158] which will be transformed into a paradise similar to the Garden of Eden.^[159] After Armageddon, most of those who had died prior to God's intervention will gradually be resurrected to a "day of judgment" lasting for a thousand years.^[160] This judgment will be based on their actions after resurrection, not on past deeds.^[161] At the end of the thousand years, a final test will take place when Satan is brought back to mislead perfect mankind.^[162] The end result will be a fully tested, glorified human race.^[163] Christ will then hand all authority back to God.^[164]

Watch Tower Society publications teach that Jesus Christ returned invisibly and began to rule in heaven as king in October 1914.^[165] Satan was subsequently ousted from heaven to the earth, resulting in "woe" to mankind.^[166] They assert that the Greek word parousia—usually translated as "coming" when referring to Christ—is more accurately rendered as "presence", with his return perceived only as a series of "signs". This Second Coming would be an invisible presence, lasting for an extended period.^[167]

Practices

Worship

Meetings for worship and study are held at Kingdom Halls, which are typically functional in character, and do not contain religious symbols.^[168] Witnesses are assigned to a congregation in whose "territory" they reside and attend weekly services they refer to as "meetings" as scheduled by congregation elders. The meetings are largely devoted to study of the Bible and Watch Tower Society literature. The format of the meetings is established by the religion's Brooklyn headquarters, and the subject matter for most meetings is identical worldwide.^[168] Congregations meet for two sessions each week comprising five distinct meetings that total about three-and-a-half hours, typically gathering mid-week (three meetings) and on the weekend (two meetings). Gatherings are opened and closed with kingdom songs and brief prayers. Each year, Witnesses from a number of congregations that form a "circuit" gather for one-day, and two-day assemblies. Several circuits meet once a year for a three-day "district convention", usually at rented stadiums or auditoriums. Their most important and solemn event is the commemoration of the "Lord's Evening Meal", or "Memorial of Christ's Death", which generally falls on the same date as the Jewish Passover.

Evangelism

Jehovah's Witnesses are perhaps best known for their efforts to spread their beliefs, most notably by visiting people from house to house.^[169][170] Free home Bible studies are offered to people who show interest in their beliefs, which they present with the aid of books, brochures and magazines, including The Watchtower. Some literature is available in more than 500 languages.^[171] Witnesses are told they are under a biblical command to engage in public preaching.^[172][173] They are instructed to devote as much time as possible to preaching activities and are also required to provide a monthly report on their 'witnessing' activity.^[174][175] Baptized members who fail to submit a report every month are referred to as "irregular" and may be counseled by elders;^[176][177] those who do not submit a report for six consecutive months are referred to as "inactive".^[178]

Ethics and morality

Their view of morality reflects conservative Christian values. All sexual relations outside of marriage are grounds for expulsion (disfellowshipping) if the individual is not deemed repentant.^[179][180] Abortion is considered murder.^[181] Modesty in dress and grooming is frequently emphasized. Gambling,^[182] drunkenness, illegal drugs, and tobacco use are forbidden.^[183] Drinking of alcoholic beverages is permitted in moderation.^[184]

The family structure is patriarchal. The husband is considered the final authority on family decisions, but is encouraged to solicit his wife's thoughts and feelings, as well as those of his children. Marriages are required to be monogamous.^[185] Divorce is permissible only for adultery; such a divorce is referred to as "a scriptural divorce".^[186][187] If a divorce is obtained for any other reason, remarriage is considered adultery while the previous spouse is still alive and has not begun another sexual relationship.^[188] Extreme physical abuse, willful non-support of one's family, and what the religion terms "absolute endangerment of spirituality" are considered grounds for legal separation.^[189][190]

Disciplinary action

Formal discipline is administered by congregation elders. Counseling and shepherding^[191] are emphasized as primary roles of congregation elders. When an allegation of "serious sin" is made concerning a baptized member, a judicial committee is formed to determine guilt, administer help and possibly apply discipline. Disfellowshipping, a form of shunning, is the strongest form of discipline administered.^[192] Contact with disfellowshipped individuals is limited to direct family members living in the same home, and with congregation elders who may invite disfellowshipped persons to apply for reinstatement;^[193][194] formal business dealings may continue if contractually or financially obliged.^[195] By avoiding social and spiritual interaction with disfellowshipped individuals, Witnesses state that the congregation is kept free from immoral influence and wrong-doers may be shamed into repentance.^[196] The threat of shunning also serves to deter other members from dissident behavior. Watch Tower Society figures show that over a 10-year period in the 1960s and 1970s, the number of reinstatements was about 40 per cent of the number of expulsions.^[197] Members who voluntarily leave the religion and formally disassociate themselves are also shunned.^{[198][199][200]} Reproof is given formally by a judicial committee to a baptized Witness who is considered repentant of "serious sin"; the reproved person temporarily loses conspicuous privileges of service, but suffers no restriction of social or spiritual fellowship.^[201] Marking is practiced if a baptized adherent persists in a course of action regarded as a violation of Bible principles but not a "serious sin".^[202]

Separateness

Jehovah's Witnesses believe that the Bible condemns the mixing of religions, on the basis that there can only be one truth from God, and therefore reject interfaith and ecumenical movements.^{[203][204][205]} They believe that only their religion represents true Christianity, and that other religions fail to meet all the requirements set by God and will eventually be destroyed.^[206] Jehovah's Witnesses are taught that it is vital to remain "separate from the world." Watch Tower Society publications define the "world" as "the mass of mankind apart from Jehovah's approved servants" and teach that it is ruled by Satan and a place of danger and moral contamination.^{[207][208][209]} Because of perceived dangers from "worldly" association,^[210] Witnesses are advised to minimize social contact with non-members to better maintain their own standards of morality.^{[211][212][213][214][215][216]}

Jehovah's Witnesses believe their highest allegiance belongs to God's kingdom, which is viewed as an actual government in heaven, with Christ as king. They remain politically neutral, do not seek public office and are discouraged from voting, though individual members may participate in uncontroversial community improvement issues.^{[217][218][219][220]} They abstain from celebrating religious holidays and birthdays and reject many customs they believe have pagan origins. They do not work in industries associated with the military, do not serve in the armed services^[221] and refuse national military service, which in some countries may result in their arrest and imprisonment.^[222] They do not salute or pledge allegiance to flags or sing national anthems or patriotic songs.^[223]

Rejection of blood transfusions

Jehovah's Witnesses refuse blood transfusions, which they consider a violation of God's law based on their interpretation of Acts 15:28, 29 and other scriptures.^{[224][225][226]} Since 1961 the willing acceptance of a blood transfusion by an unrepentant member has been grounds for expulsion from the religion.^[227][228] Watch Tower Society literature directs Witnesses to refuse blood transfusions, even in "a life-or-death situation".^{[229][230][231][232]} Jehovah's Witnesses accept non-blood alternatives,^[233] and other medical procedures, in lieu of blood transfusions.

Though Jehovah's Witnesses do not accept blood transfusions, they may accept some blood plasma fractions at their own discretion.^{[234][235][236]} The Watch Tower Society provides pre-formatted Power of Attorney documents prohibiting major components, in which members can specify which allowable fractions and treatments they will personally accept.^[237][238] Jehovah's Witnesses have established Hospital Liaison Committees as a cooperative arrangement between individual Jehovah's Witnesses and medical professionals and hospitals.^[239][240]

Demographics

Jehovah's Witnesses have an active presence in most countries, though they do not form a large part of the population of any country. As of August 2009, Jehovah's Witnesses have an average of 7 million "publishers", the term they use for members actively involved in preaching. In 2009, these reports indicated a total of over 1.5 billion hours spent in preaching and Bible study activity. Since the mid-1990s, the number of peak publishers has increased from 4.5 million to 7.3 million,^[241] The worldwide growth rate of Jehovah's Witnesses is currently 3.2% per year.^[242] The official published membership statistics include only those who submit qualified reports of personal ministry; official statistics do not include "inactive" and disfellowshipped members or those who merely attend meetings. As a result, only about half of those who self-identified as Jehovah's Witnesses in independent demographic studies are considered "active" by the faith itself.^[243][244]

There are more than 100,000 congregations of Jehovah's Witnesses worldwide.^[245] Congregations reflect the languages spoken in their communities. For example, by 2002, nearly 3,000 of the 10,000 congregations in the United States conducted meetings in 38 languages other than English.^[246]

Opposition

The beliefs, doctrines and practices of Jehovah's Witnesses have engendered controversy and opposition from local governments, communities, and religious groups. Religious commentator Ken Jubber wrote that "Viewed globally, this persecution has been so persistent and of such an intensity that it would not be inaccurate to regard Jehovah's witnesses as the most persecuted religion of the twentieth century".^[247]

Persecution

Political and religious animosity against Jehovah's Witnesses has at times led to mob action and government oppression in various countries. Their doctrine of political neutrality and their refusal to serve in the military has led to imprisonment of members who refused conscription during World War II and at other times where national service compulsory. In Germany, as many as 12,000 Witnesses were sent to concentration camps,^[248] and were identified by purple triangles; as many as 5000 died.^[249] More than 200 men were executed at the orders of German war courts.^[250] In Canada, Jehovah's Witnesses were interned in camps^[251] along with political dissidents and people of Chinese and Japanese descent.^[252] In the former Soviet Union, about 9300 Jehovah's Witness families were deported to Siberia as part of Operation North in April 1951.^[253][254] Their religious activities are currently banned or restricted in some countries, including China, Vietnam and some Islamic states.^[255][256]

Legal challenges

Many cases involving Jehovah's Witnesses have been heard by Supreme Courts throughout the world. Their persistent legal challenges have helped to widen the definition of civil liberties in many countries.^[257] The cases generally relate to the right to practice their religion, displays of patriotism and military service, and blood transfusions.^[258]

Criticism

Jehovah's Witnesses have attracted criticism over issues surrounding their Bible translation, doctrines, their handling of sexual abuse cases and what is claimed to be coercion of members. Many of the claims are denied by Jehovah's Witnesses and some have also been disputed by courts and religious scholars.

New World Translation

Some Bible scholars including Bruce M. Metzger have noted that the translation of certain texts in its New World Translation of the Bible is biased in favor of Witness practices and doctrines.^{[259][260][261][262][263]} English Bible editor Dr. Harold H. Rowley criticized the pre-release edition of the first volume (Genesis to Ruth) published in 1953 as "a shining example of how the Bible should not be translated".^[264] In his study on nine of "the Bibles most widely in use in the English-speaking world" Bible scholar Jason BeDuhn noted that New World Translation was not "bias free", but emerged "as the most accurate of the translations compared", and thus "a remarkably good translation".^[265] Professor Benjamin Kedar of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem described the translation as "an honest endeavor to achieve an understanding of the text that is as accurate as possible".^[266]

Theologians including Metzger have also criticized the translators' insertion of the name Jehovah 237 times in the New Testament in places where it does not appear in the extant Greek manuscripts.^[267][268] Watch Tower Society publications have said the name was "restored" on a sound basis, particularly when New Testament writers used the Greek Kyrios (Lord) when quoting Old Testament scriptures that contained the Tetragrammaton.^[269] That view is endorsed by Bible scholar George Howard^[270] and R. B. Girdlestone, late principal of Wycliffe Hall, Oxford.^{[271][272][273]}

Failed predictions

Watch Tower Society publications have claimed that God has used Jehovah's Witnesses (and previously, the International Bible Students) to declare his will^[274][275] and has equipped them with advanced knowledge about future world events.^[276] Former Governing Body member Raymond Franz, who became a critic of the religion, has cited publications that claimed that God has used Jehovah's Witnesses and the International Bible Students (the organisation's earlier name) as a modern-day prophet.^[277] Jehovah's Witnesses' publications have made various predictions about world events they believe were prophesied in the Bible.^[278][279] Failed predictions have led to the alteration or abandonment of some doctrines.^[280][281] Critics highlight failed predictions that the Watch Tower Society had claimed were "beyond doubt" or "approved by God".^[282] The Watch Tower Society rejects accusations that it is a false prophet.^[283] It says that unlike Old Testament prophets its interpretations of the Bible are not inspired or infallible^{[284][285][286]} and that its predictions were not claimed as "the words of Jehovah".^[283] It states that some of its expectations have needed adjustment as a part of progressive revelation and of its eagerness for God's Kingdom, adding that Witnesses are always ready to accept such adjustments and hence it would be "foolish to take the view that expectations needing some adjustment should call into question the whole body of truth."^[287][288]

Social issues

Critics have described the religion's leadership as autocratic because of Watch Tower Society requirements for loyalty and obedience by Witnesses^[289][290] and the practise of shunning members who cannot conscientiously agree with all the religion's teachings and practices.^[291][292] Sociologist Andrew Holden says those who choose to leave the religion "are seldom allowed a dignified exit".^[293] Sociologist Rodney Stark, however, states that while Jehovah's Witness leaders are "not always very democratic" and members are expected to conform to "rather strict standards," enforcement tends to be informal, sustained by close bonds of friendship and that Jehovah's Witnesses see themselves as "part of the power structure rather than subject to it".^[56] Critics charge that Jehovah's Witnesses emphasize guarding against "independent thinking", such as questioning the counsel it provides,^{[294][295][296]} and have accused the Watch Tower Society of using elements of mind control by exercising "intellectual dominance" over Witnesses,^[297] controlling information and creating "mental isolation".^[298] In a case involving Jehovah's Witnesses' activities in Russia, the European Court of Human Rights stated that the religion's requirements "are not fundamentally different from similar limitations that other religions impose on their followers' private lives" and that charges of "mind control" were "based on conjecture and uncorroborated by fact."^[299]

Handling of sexual abuse cases

As recently as 2007, some critics have accused Jehovah's Witnesses of employing organizational policies that make the reporting of sexual abuse difficult for members. Some victims of sexual abuse have also asserted that they were ordered by local elders to maintain silence so as to avoid embarrassment to both the accused and the organization.^[300][301] Jehovah's Witnesses maintain that they have no policy of silence, and that elders are directed to report abuse to authorities when there is evidence of abuse, and when required to by law. In 1997, Jehovah's Witnesses' Office of Public Information published their policy^[302] for elders to report allegations of child abuse to the authorities where required by law to do so, even if there was only one witness.^[303][304] Any person known to have sexually abused a child is prohibited from holding any responsibility inside the organization.^[305] Unless considered by the congregation elders to demonstrate repentance, such a person is typically disfellowshipped.^[180]

References

Further reading

• Apocalypse Delayed: The Story of Jehovah's Witnesses by M. James Penton. Penton, professor emeritus of history at University of Lethbridge and a former member of the religion, examines the history of Jehovah's Witnesses, and their doctrines. Read selections from: Apocalypse Delayed: the Story of Jehovah's Witnesses University of Toronto Press. ISBN 0-8020-7973-3 (Canada, 1998) (Google book search)
• Jehovah's Witnesses: Portrait of a Contemporary Religious Movement by Andrew Holden. An academic study on the sociological aspects of Jehovah's Witnesses phenomenon. Publisher: Routledge; 1st edition 2002, ISBN 978–0415266109. 224 pages.
• Jehovah's Witnesses—Proclaimers of God's Kingdom (1993) by Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania. Official history of the development of the beliefs, practices, and organisational structure of Jehovah's Witnesses. 750 pages.
• Counting the Days to Armageddon by Robert Crompton (1996). A detailed examination of the development of Jehovah's Witnesses' eschatology. James Clarke & Co, Cambridge, ISBN 0-227-67939-3.
• Millions Now Living Will Never Die by Alan Rogerson. Detailed history of the Watch Tower movement, particularly its early years, a summary of Witness doctrines and the organizational and personal framework in which Witnesses conduct their lives. Constable & Co, London, 1969. SBN 094559406
• State and Salvation by William Kaplan (1989). Documents the Witnesses' fight for civil rights in Canada and the US amid political persecution during World War II. University of Toronto Press, ISBN 0-8020-5842-6.

External links

Official sites

• Jehovah's Witnesses: Watch Tower Society Official Web Site
• Jehovah's Witnesses: Office of Public Information and Archives
• Official Jehovah's Witnesses website for distribution of publications and free MP3 & AAC downloads

Other sites

• Strictly Genteel Theocratic Resources – Scans of complete books and booklets from Russell's era to Knorr's.
• 'Knocking' – A documentary promoting Jehovah's Witnesses. Sample Trailer
• Why Do Jehovah's Witnesses Grow So Rapidly: A Theoretical Explanation - Theory documented by sociologists Rodney Stark & Laurence R. Iannaccone.
• Who are Jehovah's Witnesses, What are their beliefs Chapter from book, Religious Denominations In The United States by Frank S. Mead, Samuel S. Hill and Craig D. Atwood, (2005). Abingdon Press.

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